Making Trade Agreements Work for Women Empowerment:
Abstract
In the recent years, there has been an upsurge in the number of FTAs that are mainstreaming gender equality concerns in their trade agreements. But is gender mainstreaming enough, and does it mean that countries that “mainstream” gender equality concerns in their trade agreements also “adopt” actions to address these concerns? What is gender mainstreaming in trade policy context? How can trade agreements help in fostering women empowerment? What kinds of relevant provisions have already been included in existing trade agreements, and what remains undone? This article seeks to respond to these questionsKeywords:
gender mainstreaming, trade agreements, women empowerment, shortcomingsReferences
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Diebold, N. F. (2008). The morals and order exceptions in WTO law: balancing the toothless tiger and the undermining mole. Journal of International Economic Law, 11(1), 43-74.
Dong, J., He, J., Li, X., Mou, X., & Dong, Z. (2020). The effect of industrial structure change on carbon dioxide emissions: a cross-country panel analysis. Journal of Systems Science and Information, 8(1), 1-16.
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Agreement for the Establishment of the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (1982).
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Free Trade Agreement Between the Government of Malaysia and the Government of the Republic of Turkey (2015).
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Hyder, A., & Behrman, J. R. (2012). International trade openness and gender gaps in Pakistani labor force participation rates over 57 years. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 17(3), 367-382.
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ITC. (2020). Mainstreaming Gender in Free Trade Agreements. Geneva: ITC.
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Kabeer, N. (2003). Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals: A handbook for policy-makers and other stakeholders: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Kagnicioglu, D. (2017). The role of women in working life in Turkey. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 226, 349-358.
Klugman, J., & Gamberoni, E. (2012). Gender and trade: A frech look at evidence Paper presented at the International Trade Forum.
Korinek, J., Moïsé, E., & Tange, J. (2021). Trade and gender: A Framework of analysis. Retrieved from Paris: OECD
Kurshan, L. (2000). Rethinking Property Rights as Human Rights: Acquiring Equal Property Rights for Women Using International Human Rights Treaties. Am. UJ Gender Soc. Pol'y & L., 8, 353.
Levinsohn, J. (1999). Employment responses to international liberalization in Chile. Journal of International Economics, 47(2), 321-344.
Lubem, A. E., & Sarah, D. H. (2018). Moderating Effect of Self-Efficacy on the Relationship Between Women Empowerment and New Venture Creation in Benue State, Nigeria. International Journal of Information, Business and Management, 10(2), 1-18.
Martínez-Zarzoso, I. (2018). Assessing the effectiveness of environmental provisions in regional trade agreements: An empirical analysis. Retrieved from Pars:
Michalos, A. C. (2014). Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research: Springer Netherlands Dordrecht.
Monteiro, J.-A. (2021). The evolution of gener-related provisions in regional trade agreements. Retrieved from Geneva: https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd202108_e.pdf
Muravyev, A., Talavera, O., & Schäfer, D. (2009). Entrepreneurs' gender and financial constraints: Evidence from international data. Journal of Comparative Economics, 37(2), 270-286.
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Page, N., & Czuba, C. E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it. Journal of extension, 37(5), 1-5.
Free Trade Agreement between the Republic of Central America and the Republic of Korea (2019).
Agreement establishing an association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Chile, of the other part (2003).
República de Chile (2014). Vietnam - Chile Free Trade Agreement.
Reus-Smit, C. (2001). Human rights and the social construction of sovereignty. Review of International Studies, 27(4), 519-538.
SADC. (2008). Protocol on Gender and Development
Serpin, P. (2016). The public morals exception after the WTO seal products dispute: Has the exception swallowed the rules. Colum. Bus. L. Rev., 217.
Sikkink, K. (1993). Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America. International Organization, 47(3), 411-441.
Singh, A. (2017). Explained: India’s Refusal to Back WTO Declaration on Gender Equality in Trade. Retrieved from https://qrius.com/explained-india-refusal-gender-equality-trade/
Stromquist, N. P. (1988). Women's education in development: From welfare to empowerment. Convergence, 21(4), 5.
The Japan Times. (2019). Social norms hinder women’s career growth. The Japan Times
Ukpe, A., & Khorana, S. (2021). Special and differential treatment in the WTO: framing differential treatment to achieve (real) development. Journal of International Trade Law and Policy.
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UNFPA. (2008). Gender Inequality and Women’s Empowerment Ethiopian Society of Population Studies, In-depth Analysis of the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey.
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USTR. (2005). CAFTA-DR (Dominican Republic-Central America FTA).
USTR (2021). United States – Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement.
USTR. (2020). United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement.
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WTO. (1999). Report of the WTO Secretariat on the Trade Policy Review of Israel. Geneva: WTO.
WTO. (2007). Report on the Trade Policy Review of Indonesia. Geneva: WTO.
WTO. (2013). United States–measures affecting the cross-border supply of gambling and betting services – Communication from Antigua and Barbuda. World Trade Organization, WT/DS285/26.
WTO. (2014). EC – Seal Products, Appellate Report.
WTO. (2016). Colombia – Measures Relating to the Importation of Textiles, Apparel and Footwear – Report of the Panel. WT/DS461/R.
WTO. (2017). Brazil – Certain Measures Concerning Taxation and Charges – Report of the Panel.
WTO. (2019). Panel Report. Russian Federation— Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit. Retrieved from Geneva:
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions. American Journal of community psychology, 18(1), 169-177.
Abbott, K. W., & Snidal, D. (2000). Hard and soft law in international governance. International Organization, 54(3), 421-456.
African Union. (2019). Agreement Establishing the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
Bahrein Penal Code, (1976).
Bahri, A. (2019). Measuring the Gender-Responsiveness of Free Trade Agreements: Using a Self-Evaluation Maturity Framework. Global Trade Customs Journal, 14(11/12).
Bahri, A. (2020). Women at the Frontline of COVID-19: Can Gender Mainstreaming in Free Trade Agreements Help? Journal of International Economic Law, 23(3), 563-582.
Baldwin, R., & Evenett, S. J. (2020). COVID-19 and trade policy: Why turning inward won’t work: CEPR Press.
Balogh, J. M., & Jámbor, A. (2020). The environmental impacts of agricultural trade: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 12(3), 1152.
Bhala, R., & Wood, C. N. (2018). Two Dimensional Hard-Soft Law Theory and the Advancement of Women's and LGBTQ Rights through Free Trade Agreements. Ga. J. Int'l & Comp. L., 47, 299.
Bissio, R. (2017). Is “Gender” a Trojan Horse to Introduce New Issues at WTO? Retrieved from https://twnetwork.org/wto/%E2%80%9Cgender%E2%80%9D-trojan-horse-introduce-new-issues-wto
Boklan, D., & Bahri, A. (2020). The first WTO's ruling on national security exception: Balancing interests or opening Pandora's box? World Trade Review, 19(1), 123-136.
Chamberlin, J., & Schene, A. H. (1997). A working definition of empowerment. Psychiatric rehabilitation journal, 20, 43-46.
Choi, W.-M. (2003). 'Like products' in international trade law: towards a consistent GATT/WTO jurisprudence: Oxford University Press on Demand.
Council of Europe. (2021). What is gender mainstreaming? Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/what-is-gender-mainstreaming
Diebold, N. F. (2008). The morals and order exceptions in WTO law: balancing the toothless tiger and the undermining mole. Journal of International Economic Law, 11(1), 43-74.
Dong, J., He, J., Li, X., Mou, X., & Dong, Z. (2020). The effect of industrial structure change on carbon dioxide emissions: a cross-country panel analysis. Journal of Systems Science and Information, 8(1), 1-16.
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of economic literature, 50(4), 1051-1079.
Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community (2009).
Agreement for the Establishment of the Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (1982).
Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union (2015).
Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Tunisia, (1998).
European Union. (2000a). Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of South Africa.
European Union. (2000b). The Partnership Agreement between the members of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group of States of the one part and the European Union and its Member States of the other part (Cotonou Agreement)
Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Arab Republic of Egypt, of the other part (2004).
Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, of the other part (2005).
Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the European Community and its Member States, of one part, and the Republic of Lebanon, of the other part (2006).
European Union. (2009). Interim Partnership Agreement between the European Community, of the one part, and the Pacific States, of the other part.
European Union. (2012). Interim Agreement establishing a framework for an Economic Partnership Agreement between the Eastern and Southern Africa States, on the one part, and the European Community and its Member States, on the other part.
Agreement Establishing an Association between the European Union and its Member States, on the one hand, and Central America on the other (2013).
Association Agreement between the European Union and its Member States, of the one part, and Ukraine, of the other part (2014).
European Union. (2019). Free Trade Agreement between the European Union and the Republic of Singapore
Fontana, M. (2009). The Gender Effects of Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs): A Synthesis of Findings from Tanzania, Mozambique and Jamaica. Report for Gender and Women’s Rights Analysis of Economic Partnership Agreements’, funded by DFID.
Fontana, M., & Paciello, C. (2010). Gender Dimensions of Agricultural and Rural Employment: Differentiated Pathways out of Poverty. Retrieved from
Government of Australia. (2020). Peru – Australia Free Trade Agreement
Government of Canada. (2012a). Agreement on Labour Cooperation between Canada and Jordan.
Government of Canada. (2012b). Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement.
Government of Canada. (2019). Canada-Israel FTA.
Government of Canada. (2020). CETA Trade and Gender Recommendation: EU-Canada Work Plan 2020-2021. Retrieved from https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/ceta-aecg/CETA_work_plan-AECG_plan_travail-2020-2021.aspx?lang=eng
Free Trade Agreement between the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the Republic of Nicaragua (2008).
Free Trade Agreement Between the Government of Malaysia and the Government of the Republic of Turkey (2015).
Government of New Zealand. (2015). New Zealand – Republic of Korea Free Trade Agreement.
Government of New Zealand. (2018). Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership
GTGA. (2020). Global Trade and Gender Arrangement. Retrieved from https://www.international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/inclusive_trade-commerce_inclusif/itag-gaci/arrangement.aspx?lang=eng
Harrison, J. (2019). The labour rights agenda in free trade agreements. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 20(5), 705-725.
Hyder, A., & Behrman, J. R. (2012). International trade openness and gender gaps in Pakistani labor force participation rates over 57 years. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 17(3), 367-382.
IISD. (2021). WTO Heads for a Ministerial Declaration on Trade and Gender. Retrieved from https://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/policy-briefs/wto-heads-for-a-ministerial-declaration-on-trade-and-gender/
ILO. (2017). Handbook on Assessment of Labour Provisions in Trade and Investment Arrangements: International Labour Organization.
ITC. (2020). Mainstreaming Gender in Free Trade Agreements. Geneva: ITC.
ITC. (2021). Women and Trade. Retrieved from https://www.intracen.org/itc/women-and-trade/
Kabeer, N. (2003). Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals: A handbook for policy-makers and other stakeholders: Commonwealth Secretariat.
Kagnicioglu, D. (2017). The role of women in working life in Turkey. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 226, 349-358.
Klugman, J., & Gamberoni, E. (2012). Gender and trade: A frech look at evidence Paper presented at the International Trade Forum.
Korinek, J., Moïsé, E., & Tange, J. (2021). Trade and gender: A Framework of analysis. Retrieved from Paris: OECD
Kurshan, L. (2000). Rethinking Property Rights as Human Rights: Acquiring Equal Property Rights for Women Using International Human Rights Treaties. Am. UJ Gender Soc. Pol'y & L., 8, 353.
Levinsohn, J. (1999). Employment responses to international liberalization in Chile. Journal of International Economics, 47(2), 321-344.
Lubem, A. E., & Sarah, D. H. (2018). Moderating Effect of Self-Efficacy on the Relationship Between Women Empowerment and New Venture Creation in Benue State, Nigeria. International Journal of Information, Business and Management, 10(2), 1-18.
Martínez-Zarzoso, I. (2018). Assessing the effectiveness of environmental provisions in regional trade agreements: An empirical analysis. Retrieved from Pars:
Michalos, A. C. (2014). Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research: Springer Netherlands Dordrecht.
Monteiro, J.-A. (2021). The evolution of gener-related provisions in regional trade agreements. Retrieved from Geneva: https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd202108_e.pdf
Muravyev, A., Talavera, O., & Schäfer, D. (2009). Entrepreneurs' gender and financial constraints: Evidence from international data. Journal of Comparative Economics, 37(2), 270-286.
OECD. (2021). Trade and Gender. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/trade/topics/trade-and-gender/
Page, N., & Czuba, C. E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it. Journal of extension, 37(5), 1-5.
Free Trade Agreement between the Republic of Central America and the Republic of Korea (2019).
Agreement establishing an association between the European Community and its Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Chile, of the other part (2003).
República de Chile (2014). Vietnam - Chile Free Trade Agreement.
Reus-Smit, C. (2001). Human rights and the social construction of sovereignty. Review of International Studies, 27(4), 519-538.
SADC. (2008). Protocol on Gender and Development
Serpin, P. (2016). The public morals exception after the WTO seal products dispute: Has the exception swallowed the rules. Colum. Bus. L. Rev., 217.
Sikkink, K. (1993). Human rights, principled issue-networks, and sovereignty in Latin America. International Organization, 47(3), 411-441.
Singh, A. (2017). Explained: India’s Refusal to Back WTO Declaration on Gender Equality in Trade. Retrieved from https://qrius.com/explained-india-refusal-gender-equality-trade/
Stromquist, N. P. (1988). Women's education in development: From welfare to empowerment. Convergence, 21(4), 5.
The Japan Times. (2019). Social norms hinder women’s career growth. The Japan Times
Ukpe, A., & Khorana, S. (2021). Special and differential treatment in the WTO: framing differential treatment to achieve (real) development. Journal of International Trade Law and Policy.
UN Women. (2021). Concepts and definitions. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/conceptsandefinitions.htm
UNCTAD. (2021a). Gender and Trade. Retrieved from https://unctad.org/webflyer/gender-and-trade
UNCTAD. (2021b). Trade and Gender Linkages: An analysis of Least Developed Countries. In UNCTAD (Ed.), Teaching Material on Trade and Gender. Geneva: UNCTAD.
UNFPA. (2008). Gender Inequality and Women’s Empowerment Ethiopian Society of Population Studies, In-depth Analysis of the Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, (1969).
USTR. (2005). CAFTA-DR (Dominican Republic-Central America FTA).
USTR (2021). United States – Colombia Trade Promotion Agreement.
USTR. (2020). United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement.
World Bank. (2015). Women, business and the law 2016: Getting to equal. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
World Bank. (2018). Women, Business, and the Law 2018. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
World Bank. (2019). Women, business and the law 2019: A decade of reform. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
WTO. (1999). Report of the WTO Secretariat on the Trade Policy Review of Israel. Geneva: WTO.
WTO. (2007). Report on the Trade Policy Review of Indonesia. Geneva: WTO.
WTO. (2013). United States–measures affecting the cross-border supply of gambling and betting services – Communication from Antigua and Barbuda. World Trade Organization, WT/DS285/26.
WTO. (2014). EC – Seal Products, Appellate Report.
WTO. (2016). Colombia – Measures Relating to the Importation of Textiles, Apparel and Footwear – Report of the Panel. WT/DS461/R.
WTO. (2017). Brazil – Certain Measures Concerning Taxation and Charges – Report of the Panel.
WTO. (2019). Panel Report. Russian Federation— Measures Concerning Traffic in Transit. Retrieved from Geneva:
Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Taking aim on empowerment research: On the distinction between individual and psychological conceptions. American Journal of community psychology, 18(1), 169-177.
